Overview

The Visconti-Sforza tarot represents the genesis of the tarot as we know it today. Created in the mid-15th century for the ruling families of Milan, these exquisite, hand-painted cards are the oldest surviving nearly complete decks in existence. Far from the mass-produced occult tools of later centuries, the Visconti-Sforza cards were unparalleled works of Renaissance art and sophisticated instruments of dynastic propaganda. This article explores the intense political context of their creation, the masterful, labor-intensive artistry of Bonifacio Bembo, the intricate allegorical symbolism woven into specific cards, and the fascinating journey of the surviving fragments now housed in modern museums.

The Patronage of Power: The Sforza-Visconti Alliance

The story of the Visconti-Sforza tarot begins in the opulent, politically volatile courts of 15th-century Milan. The creation of these decks was not driven by mystical inquiry, but by a complex interplay of political ambition, cultural prestige, and the need to legitimize a new ruling dynasty.

A Crisis of Succession: In the early 15th century, the Duchy of Milan was ruled by Filippo Maria Visconti. When he died in 1447 without a legitimate male heir, the city plunged into chaos, briefly declaring itself the Ambrosian Republic. However, Filippo Maria did have an illegitimate but recognized daughter: Bianca Maria Visconti. She had been married off to Francesco Sforza, a brilliant and powerful condottiero (mercenary commander) who had previously fought both for and against Milan.

Cards as Propaganda: In 1450, Francesco Sforza successfully laid siege to Milan, dismantled the republic, and claimed the ducal title by right of his marriage to Bianca Maria. Because his claim was essentially won by force rather than royal blood, Sforza needed to legitimize his rule. The most famous of the surviving tarot decks, the Pierpont Morgan-Bergamo deck, was commissioned around 1451 precisely for this purpose.

As luxury objects designed for the aristocratic trick-taking game of Tarocchi, these cards served as potent, portable monuments to dynastic legitimacy. The artwork deliberately combined the established heraldry of the Visconti—such as the biscione (a giant serpent swallowing a human) and the radiant dove—with the newer emblems of the Sforza family, including the three interlocking diamond rings and the quince fruit. By literally holding these symbols of united power in their hands, the Milanese courtiers were participating in a subtle reinforcement of Sforza’s right to rule.

The Artistry of the Bembo Workshop

The breathtaking beauty of the Visconti-Sforza decks is primarily attributed to the workshop of Bonifacio Bembo, a prominent painter and miniaturist active in the courts of Milan and Cremona, though some later replacement cards were painted by Antonio Cicognara.

Constructing the Pasteboard: These cards were not merely printed; they were carefully built. The artisans began by layering several sheets of high-quality paper, gluing them together to create a thick, stiff pasteboard (cartoncino). The cards are significantly larger than modern playing cards, measuring roughly 175 by 87 millimeters, giving them a substantial, monumental presence in the hand.

Gold Leaf and Punchwork: The cards were then coated with a fine layer of gesso to create a perfectly smooth painting surface. For the trump cards and court figures, the backgrounds were entirely covered in thin sheets of gold leaf, which was painstakingly burnished until it shone like solid metal. The artists then utilized a technique called punchwork (granito)—pressing small, shaped metal tools into the gold—to create intricate geometric and floral patterns. In the dim, flickering candlelight of a 15th-century evening, these punched patterns would catch the light, making the allegorical figures appear to move and glow.

Egg Tempera and Precious Pigments: The figures themselves were painted using egg tempera, a fast-drying medium that required confident, precise brushwork. The Bembo workshop utilized the most expensive pigments available in Renaissance Europe: deep ultramarine blue (derived from imported lapis lazuli from Afghanistan), brilliant vermilion red, and rich malachite green. The figures are rendered in the elegant, elongated style characteristic of the International Gothic period transitioning into the early Renaissance, featuring pale, aristocratic faces and flowing, heavily draped garments.

Iconography and Symbolism

The imagery of the Visconti-Sforza trumps provides a crucial window into the visual culture and intellectual preoccupations of 15th-century Italy. Lacking the overtly esoteric, Kabbalistic, or Egyptian symbols added by 19th-century occultists, the deck relies entirely on Renaissance civic allegory, classical mythology, and Christian theology.

Familiar Archetypes in Early Forms: Many of the archetypes familiar to modern readers appear here in their earliest iterations, often looking quite different from their later Marseille or Rider-Waite-Smith counterparts.

• Love (The Lovers): Rather than depicting Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden or a young man choosing between two women, the Visconti-Sforza Love card portrays a formal, aristocratic wedding ceremony. A blonde woman and a young man stand beneath a heraldic pavilion, clasping hands. This is widely interpreted as a commemorative portrait of Bianca Maria Visconti and Francesco Sforza, their union blessed by a blindfolded Cupid hovering above them with a dart.
• Justice: The depiction of Justice in this deck is remarkably complex. A crowned female figure sits holding the traditional sword and scales. However, uniquely situated in the lower half of the card, beneath her throne, is a fully armored knight riding a white horse. This likely represents the concept of civic justice enforced by military might—a very real concern for a mercenary-turned-Duke like Francesco Sforza.
• The Star: Unlike the nude water-pourer familiar to modern readers, the Star card in the Pierpont Morgan-Bergamo deck features a fully clothed woman in a flowing blue cloak. She stands on solid ground, holding a single, eight-pointed star in her left hand and gazing up at it. It is an image of quiet contemplation and hope, lacking the astrological complexity of later decks.
• The Fool (Il Matto): Depicted as a ragged, barefoot beggar with feathers in his hair and an exaggerated goiter (a common affliction in the mountainous regions of Italy at the time), he represents madness, social marginalization, or divine folly.
• Death: Rendered as a skeletal figure, sometimes on horseback, Death wields a scythe or a bow. This is a classic memento mori motif of the era, a reminder that the plague and the grave harvest all souls regardless of their social station or earthly triumphs.

Variations: The Cary-Yale and Brambilla Decks

While the Pierpont Morgan-Bergamo deck is the most famous, the Milanese court commissioned several other luxury decks that reveal the experimental, fluid nature of early tarot structure.

The Cary-Yale Tarot (Visconti di Modrone): Housed at Yale University, this deck is arguably older than the Morgan-Bergamo. It features a fascinating structural variation: instead of the standard four court cards per suit, the Cary-Yale deck has six. It includes both male and female Knights, as well as male Pages and female Maids, bringing the total number of court cards to 24. Furthermore, its surviving trump cards include the three Theological Virtues (Faith, Hope, and Charity), which were eventually dropped from the standard tarot sequence, demonstrating that the 78-card structure took decades to fully standardize.

The Brera-Brambilla Tarot: Commissioned by Filippo Maria Visconti before his death, this deck (now in the Pinacoteca di Brera in Milan) only has two surviving trump cards: The Emperor and the Wheel of Fortune. However, its 46 surviving minor suit cards are exquisitely detailed, with the coins in the suit of Pentacles stamped with the actual profile of Duke Filippo Maria, further blurring the line between a playing card and a political coin of the realm.

The Mystery of the Missing Cards

Of the estimated 15 or more hand-painted decks commissioned by the Milanese court, none survive entirely intact. The most complete example, the Pierpont Morgan-Bergamo deck, contains 74 of the original 78 cards.

The Lost Trumps: The four missing cards from this deck are the Devil, the Tower, the Knight of Coins, and the Three of Swords. The absence of the Devil and the Tower has fueled centuries of speculation. Some historians suggest they were simply lost to the ravages of time and heavy gameplay. Others propose a more deliberate omission, theorizing that the aristocratic patrons found the imagery of demonic influence and catastrophic destruction distasteful or unlucky, and intentionally removed or destroyed them.

Later Additions: Interestingly, six cards in the Pierpont Morgan-Bergamo deck (Strength, Temperance, The Star, The Moon, The Sun, and The World) are painted in a markedly different style from the rest of the Bembo cards. Scholars believe these were painted decades later, likely by the artist Antonio Cicognara, to replace cards that had been lost or damaged, demonstrating the enduring value and continued use of the deck across multiple generations of the Sforza family.

Where Are They Now?

The surviving cards of the Pierpont Morgan-Bergamo deck, like many Renaissance masterpieces, were scattered over the centuries through inheritance, aristocratic decline, and the complexities of the international art market. Today, the 74 cards are divided among three prestigious institutions:

• The Pierpont Morgan Library (New York): Houses 35 cards, including many of the most iconic Major Arcana trumps and court cards.
• The Accademia Carrara (Bergamo, Italy): Holds 26 cards, primarily from the Minor Arcana suits.
• The Pinacoteca di Brera (Milan, Italy): Safeguards the remaining 13 cards, a fitting return to the city where they were originally created.

Legacy and Influence

The Visconti-Sforza tarot is the bedrock upon which the entire edifice of modern tarot is built. While it may not have been the absolute first deck ever created, it is the most complete early example of the 78-card structure that became the global standard.

When the printing press later democratized the tarot, allowing for the mass production of woodblock decks like the Tarot de Marseille, the core visual vocabulary established by Bembo and the Milanese court was adapted, simplified, and disseminated across Europe. The elegant, courtly figures of the Visconti-Sforza established a visual tradition that endured through the esoteric reinterpretations of the 19th century and remains foundational to the psychological and divinatory practices of the present day.

Reflection

Encountering the Visconti-Sforza tarot is a powerful reminder that the cards we shuffle today are not static esoteric artifacts, but dynamic expressions of human history, art, and ambition. The breathtaking craftsmanship of these 15th-century masterpieces invites us to recognize the cultural weight embedded in the archetypes. When we draw the Emperor or the Lovers, we are not just accessing a psychological symbol; we are participating in a visual lineage that stretches back to the illuminated courts of Renaissance Milan, connecting our modern inquiries to the enduring human fascination with allegory, power, and the mysteries of fortune.